Evidence
For this project we had to choose a disease caused by a protein abnormality. We chose familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease which is caused by the human prion protein PrP and researched it. We then researched the gene PRNP (which encodes PrP) to find the location where a mutation occurred. Then we researched protein synthesis and saw how the mutation affected the final outcome, the PrP protein.
content
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid, is the primary information molecule of eukaryotes. It is composed of two sugar-phosphate backbones and four different types of nucleobases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) whose sequence along the backbone forms the genetic code of eukaryotes, which include humans. the bases connect the two backbones by forming complementary hydrogen bonds between them (adenine always connects with thymine and guanine always connects with cytosine). This forms a ladder that then twists into a double helix. DNA is found in the nucleus and it contains the entire genetic code of an organism.
RNA - Ribonucleic Acid, is another information molecule found in every organism. It is very similar to DNA in that it also has a sugar phosphate backbone and nucleobases, but it only has one backbone that loops back on itself and bonds with itself. RNA is used in many different cell processes including transporting information, acting as catalysts, and roles in cell messaging.
Protein - Large macromolecules that are made of long chains of amino acids. They fulfill almost all the duties in the body that the genetic code specifies. This ranges from enzymes to messaging to structural components.
Protein Synthesis - The biological process in which proteins are made. It has three stages, transcription, translation, and protein folding.
Transcription - In transcription, the genetic information in the DNA is copied to an mRNA molecule, as one strand of the DNA double helix is used as a template with the help of an enzyme called RNA polymerase, taking place in the nucleus. There are three phases in transcription: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation is the RNA polymerase “finding” the promoter regions’ codon in the gene (3 nucleotides). Next is elongation, when the RNA polymerase uses the free floating RNA nucleotides in the nucleus and forms an mRNA molecule out of them. Then comes termination, where the RNA polymerase finishes “copying”, indicated by the terminator region of the gene with 3 codons. After this, the mRNA has introns (non-coding regions), and exons (coding regions). To make sure that the mRNA is ready for future copying, spliceosomes remove the introns (splicing), to leave the mRNA with exons. The major players are the nucleus, DNA template, free-floating RNA nucleotides, genes, RNA polymerase, codons, spliceosomes, introns, and exons.
mRNA - A type of RNA used specifically in protein synthesis. It transfers the genetic code for a protein from the DNA in the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
Codon/Anticodon - When making a polypeptide, every amino acid is coded by a codon in the DNA and RNA, which is 3 base pairs. with 4 types of base pairs and 3 base pairs in a codon, there are 64 unique codons. Several different codons may code for a single type of amino acid as there are only 21 amino acids. The anticodon of a codon is its complimentary base pair equivalent, for example, if the codon is UAG, the anticodon would be AUC. Transfer RNA uses the anticodons of the amino acids to bind to the respective codons on the mRNA in translation.
Translation - In translation, the transcribed mRNA is sent from the nucleus to the cytoplasm to be processed in a ribosome. There are four sub-stages: activation, initiation, elongation, and termination. It takes place in the nucleus, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. When the mRNA enters a ribosome, amino acids get attached to specific transfer RNAs (tRNA). Each tRNA can transport one amino acid and one codon of information (three nucleotides). The amino acid is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3’ OH of the tRNA by an ester bond. Once tRNA is linked to the amino acid, it is “charged”. The tRNA enters the ribosome and the codons bind to the correct spots of the mRNA. The resulting chain of amino acids grows longer and longer until the translation terminates (when the ribosome faces a stop codon [UAA, UAG, UGA] that it is unable to read, and releases the polypeptide chain). The major players of translation are mRNA, tRNA, the ribosome, and the amino acids.
Ribosome - A cell organelle used specifically for translation during protein synthesis. it takes the mRNA and uses transfer RNA to create a polypeptide chain using the sequence found in the mRNA. Ribosomes are found free floating in the cytoplasm and stuck to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Amino Acid - The building blocks of proteins. They contain amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups. There are 21 different types and each is coded for by several different codons during protein synthesis.
tRNA - Transfer RNA is used in protein synthesis to transport the amino acids to the ribosome and then connect them with the mRNA in the correct sequence in translation. An amino acid connects to one end of the tRNA and three nucleotides that form its respective anticodon connect to the other side. During translation, the tRNA connects to the mRNA to create the polypeptide.
Polypeptide Chain - The primary structure of a protein. It is a long strand of amino acids and is formed during translation.
Protein Folding - The last step of protein synthesis is protein folding. Protein folding begins immediately after translation and even happens during it. It takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum, rough and smooth, and the golgi apparatus. The polypeptide chain itself is the only component in this process. The 3D structure is entirely determined by the sequence of amino acids. The formation of the secondary structure (helices and sheets) begins very rapidly after translation because they are stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Alpha helices are formed when hydrogen bonds to the backbone to form a helix. Beta sheets are formed when the backbone bends back on itself to form the bonds. Their location on the polypeptide is determined by the amino acid sequence. The different secondary structures have hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends, which is crucial to the formation of the tertiary structure. The hydrophobic part of the structure will orient itself to the center of the protein away from the aqueous environment surrounding the protein in the cytoplasm while the hydrophilic ends will form the outside of the structure. Disulfide bridge covalent bonds may also form between cysteine residues and further stabilize the tertiary structure. The tertiary structure often has separate domains, which are areas of the polypeptide chain that fold independently and don’t interact with one another but are still part of the same polypeptide chain. Interactions between multiple polypeptide chains can lead to the formation of quaternary structures, which may or may not be present in different proteins. The only major player is the polypeptide.
RNA - Ribonucleic Acid, is another information molecule found in every organism. It is very similar to DNA in that it also has a sugar phosphate backbone and nucleobases, but it only has one backbone that loops back on itself and bonds with itself. RNA is used in many different cell processes including transporting information, acting as catalysts, and roles in cell messaging.
Protein - Large macromolecules that are made of long chains of amino acids. They fulfill almost all the duties in the body that the genetic code specifies. This ranges from enzymes to messaging to structural components.
Protein Synthesis - The biological process in which proteins are made. It has three stages, transcription, translation, and protein folding.
Transcription - In transcription, the genetic information in the DNA is copied to an mRNA molecule, as one strand of the DNA double helix is used as a template with the help of an enzyme called RNA polymerase, taking place in the nucleus. There are three phases in transcription: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation is the RNA polymerase “finding” the promoter regions’ codon in the gene (3 nucleotides). Next is elongation, when the RNA polymerase uses the free floating RNA nucleotides in the nucleus and forms an mRNA molecule out of them. Then comes termination, where the RNA polymerase finishes “copying”, indicated by the terminator region of the gene with 3 codons. After this, the mRNA has introns (non-coding regions), and exons (coding regions). To make sure that the mRNA is ready for future copying, spliceosomes remove the introns (splicing), to leave the mRNA with exons. The major players are the nucleus, DNA template, free-floating RNA nucleotides, genes, RNA polymerase, codons, spliceosomes, introns, and exons.
mRNA - A type of RNA used specifically in protein synthesis. It transfers the genetic code for a protein from the DNA in the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
Codon/Anticodon - When making a polypeptide, every amino acid is coded by a codon in the DNA and RNA, which is 3 base pairs. with 4 types of base pairs and 3 base pairs in a codon, there are 64 unique codons. Several different codons may code for a single type of amino acid as there are only 21 amino acids. The anticodon of a codon is its complimentary base pair equivalent, for example, if the codon is UAG, the anticodon would be AUC. Transfer RNA uses the anticodons of the amino acids to bind to the respective codons on the mRNA in translation.
Translation - In translation, the transcribed mRNA is sent from the nucleus to the cytoplasm to be processed in a ribosome. There are four sub-stages: activation, initiation, elongation, and termination. It takes place in the nucleus, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. When the mRNA enters a ribosome, amino acids get attached to specific transfer RNAs (tRNA). Each tRNA can transport one amino acid and one codon of information (three nucleotides). The amino acid is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3’ OH of the tRNA by an ester bond. Once tRNA is linked to the amino acid, it is “charged”. The tRNA enters the ribosome and the codons bind to the correct spots of the mRNA. The resulting chain of amino acids grows longer and longer until the translation terminates (when the ribosome faces a stop codon [UAA, UAG, UGA] that it is unable to read, and releases the polypeptide chain). The major players of translation are mRNA, tRNA, the ribosome, and the amino acids.
Ribosome - A cell organelle used specifically for translation during protein synthesis. it takes the mRNA and uses transfer RNA to create a polypeptide chain using the sequence found in the mRNA. Ribosomes are found free floating in the cytoplasm and stuck to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Amino Acid - The building blocks of proteins. They contain amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups. There are 21 different types and each is coded for by several different codons during protein synthesis.
tRNA - Transfer RNA is used in protein synthesis to transport the amino acids to the ribosome and then connect them with the mRNA in the correct sequence in translation. An amino acid connects to one end of the tRNA and three nucleotides that form its respective anticodon connect to the other side. During translation, the tRNA connects to the mRNA to create the polypeptide.
Polypeptide Chain - The primary structure of a protein. It is a long strand of amino acids and is formed during translation.
Protein Folding - The last step of protein synthesis is protein folding. Protein folding begins immediately after translation and even happens during it. It takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum, rough and smooth, and the golgi apparatus. The polypeptide chain itself is the only component in this process. The 3D structure is entirely determined by the sequence of amino acids. The formation of the secondary structure (helices and sheets) begins very rapidly after translation because they are stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Alpha helices are formed when hydrogen bonds to the backbone to form a helix. Beta sheets are formed when the backbone bends back on itself to form the bonds. Their location on the polypeptide is determined by the amino acid sequence. The different secondary structures have hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends, which is crucial to the formation of the tertiary structure. The hydrophobic part of the structure will orient itself to the center of the protein away from the aqueous environment surrounding the protein in the cytoplasm while the hydrophilic ends will form the outside of the structure. Disulfide bridge covalent bonds may also form between cysteine residues and further stabilize the tertiary structure. The tertiary structure often has separate domains, which are areas of the polypeptide chain that fold independently and don’t interact with one another but are still part of the same polypeptide chain. Interactions between multiple polypeptide chains can lead to the formation of quaternary structures, which may or may not be present in different proteins. The only major player is the polypeptide.
reflection
I feel that me and my group did very well on this project. Three things that we did well on were our research, our organization, and our cooperation. We made sure to research everything fully, and if we didn't understand something then we kept researching until it made sense to us. This made our presentation very easy to understand. We also organized our work very well. With the help of a gantt chart we were able to know exactly what tasks we had to work on at all times. Lastly we also cooperated very well. We split up the workload evenly and everyone did their share of the work. There were also some things that didn't go so well. Three of these were our presentation style, our work ethic, and our leadership. We created an informational pamphlet for our presentation which was good, but something more interesting would have been great. We didn't make the absolute best use of our time, and although we finished everything, we could have refined it if we had extra time. Lastly, we didn't have a clear leader, which led us to spending to much time on deciding what we should do next. In the next project, I will improve my work ethic and leadership and we will make our presentation very interesting.